Racial Discrimination And Discrimination - 1669 Words

Racism has consistently been used as a way to express hate and to oppress others on the basis of race. In many cases, racism results as acts of violence, such as the events that took place in Charlottesville, VA on August 11-12, 2017. In this regard, racism is often actively and blatantly oppressive and hate filled. However, racism is does not always consist of expressing hate and promoting oppression. Many times, an odd paradigm exists where individuals, many times white people, are trying to repair the division between blacks and whites, but in doing so they are unintentionally racist. Rose demonstrates this in Caroline or Change when she tries indirectly to give Caroline a raise based on Caroline’s status of a black maid. Although, Rose†¦show more content†¦Angelo Corlett defines Roses actions as an example of benevolent racism where â€Å"an agent who appears to be doing something good for or with a target because of the target’s ethnicity† (Corlett 28). Hence, Rose attempts to help Caroline but her request becomes offensive because it asks Caroline to do something she is uncomfortable with, taking money from Noah. In turn, Rose’s request only widens the gap between Caroline and Rose instead of bring them together. In this light, Corlett describes how Rose is â€Å"epistemically responsible for monitoring herself in regards to the beliefs and attitudes which shape her own moral character when it comes to minimizing her use of ethnic stereotypes which might support ethnic prejudice† (Corlett 37). In other words, Rose has the ability to prevent herself from being benevolently racist by considering how her request might be received by Caroline. In this respect, it becomes the agent’s responsibility to think about the cause of their thoughts before acting on them so that the resulting action does not discriminate based on ethnicity. However, sometimes an individual’s personal experience and culture can blind them and prevent from considering possible consequences to their actions and how their actions might be received as offensive. In this light, theShow MoreRelatedRacial Discrimination Is Becoming A Larger Problem1771 Words   |  8 Pages Racial discrimination is when a person is treated less favorably than another person in a similar situation because of their race, color, national decent, ethnic origin or immigrant status (Know Your Rights: Racial Discrimination and Vilification). Racial discrimination has always been a problem, as shown in the article A Letter to My Nephew from the stimulus packet. However, as time goes by different forms of discrimination have branched out and become popular. Racial discrimination is blatantlyRead MoreRacial Discrimination And Its Effects On American Culture970 Words   |  4 PagesIf there is one thing I have noticed during my, admittedly, short sixteen years, i t is the racial discrimination and obvious bigotry of the those who are not white. Stereotypes and detrimental comments are slung every which way. Others, rely on subtle jabs while some are oblivious to the offense of the people they are around. It seems to me, that people do not seem to care. I have listened to countless conversations where people would nonchalantly insult their own culture and heritage as if theyRead MoreRacial Discrimination And Discrimination899 Words   |  4 PagesDiscrimination has been in occurrence in our society more definitively in the past few decades, compared to before the sixteenth century, when the ancient world was so small that physical differences of people went unnoticed (Cashmere and Jennings, page #). I intend to analyze discrimination by looking at racism, sexism and genderism in advertisements from Dove, Nivea, and Bristol CityFox Taxi Firm. This advertisement analysis is going to dig into the underlying factors of discrimination – includingRead MoreRacial Discrimination And Discrimination1795 Words   |  8 PagesRacial discrimination is the practice of letting a persons race or skin color unfairly become a factor when deciding who receives a job, promotion, or other employment benefit. It most often affects minority individuals who feel they have been unfairly discriminated against in favor of a Caucasian (or white) individual, but there have been recent cases where whites have claimed that reverse discrimination has occurred—that is, the minority received unfairly favorable treatment Court rulings handedRead MoreRacial Discrimination And Discrimination1728 Words   |  7 Pagesp. 2) andism is an ideology, or belief system, designed to justify and rationalize racial and ethnic â€Å"discrimination, most basically, is behavior aimed at denying members of particular ethnic groups’ equal access to societal rewards† (Chaney p. 2). For decades there have been many instances where African Americans have been beaten and gunned down by police officers for wrong reasons, such as race and discrimination. Many of these cases have been unjustified and the officers have not been given anyRead MoreRacial Discrimination : Racism And Discrimination1244 Words   |  5 PagesRacial discrimination has been an ugly face lingering around for generations. It baffles me how it still exists today. It’s interesting to me because how do you know who to discriminate against. What type of individual will promote such distasteful thoughts? Why is racial discrimination still relevant? I guess the real question will be is how to overcome racial discrimination. The beginning of racial discrimination stems from when the European settlers landed in America and conquered the NativeRead MoreRacial Discrimination And Gender Discrimination962 Words   |  4 Pagesincreasingly being seen, especially on social media. It s a single word which people are using instead of the longer phrases disability discrimination or disability prejudice. Racial discrimination and gender discrimination have their own single words - racism and sexism - and so those ideas can be expressed a little more easily. Disability discrimination is often complicated and misunderstood. At one end of the scale, buildings with steps instead of ramps may be said to be ableist. Less obviousRead MoreRacial Discrimination1110 Words   |  5 Pages There are many problems that America faces today; however, one of the most prominent is racial discrimination. Racial discrimination is one of the leading causes of riots and protests that occur in America. There are also many different opinions as to what is racial discrimination and what is not. Many people believe that the murder of someone of a particular race is linked to discrimination while others would disagree. It is important to find a resolution to this issue because it is a growingRead MoreRacial Discrimination1853 Words   |  8 PagesRacial discrimination is the distinction, restriction, preference or exclusion that is based on colour, race, ethnic origin, descent or nationality with a purpose of impairing the recognition, enjoyment of human rights and the fundamental freedoms (Anon., 2012). It is unlawful according to the Australian hotels association (AHA) and the tourism accommodation Australia (TAA) to discriminate against anyone by treating them unfairly compared to others or harassing them because of their sex, race (colourRead MoreRacial Discrimination763 Words   |  4 Pagesalters the american dream for different individuals which makes the american dream unequal. Racial discrimination can be seen in many different areas including the the workplace, school, and in employment. Racial discrimination in employment, the workplace, and in school causes unequal access to the american dream. It is impossible not to have a bias about anything. So many recruiters in employment have a racial bias which causes large unemployment in certain races. In 2014 the top three races with

Taking a Look at Deforestation - 980 Words

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses. Half of the world’s tropical forests have been cleared or degraded. Some people ask why forests’ are being cleared. It is typically done to make more land available for other things like housing, cash crops, oil, and cattle ranching. Most of what everyone does with deforestation is said to be illegal. Common methods of deforestation are clear cutting and burning trees. The burning method can be done either quickly or slowly. Quickly for plantation use or more slowly using the slash and burn technique. The many reasons why farmers and other people do that is to get money to feed there family or like it was stated early, to make room for growing crops or livestock. Forests are cut down for many reasons, but most of them are related to people’s need to provide for there families or money. Logging operations, which provide the world’s paper and wood produc ts, also cut a number of trees down each year. Loggers, some of them doing it illegally, also build roads to get to more and more remote forests, which leads to further deforestation. Not all deforestation is a terrible thing and intentional. Deforestation comes in handy when in need to build a new oil place. There are a lot of natural factors that play into deforestation like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing. Most of the deforestation occurs in the tropics, which is a terrible place because they have poor soil forShow MoreRelatedDeforestation Essay1175 Words   |  5 PagesOctober 2014 Detriment of Deforestation Image a planet without trees. This is a scary planet where the temperature is very hot and the air is very difficult to breathe. This planet will have nothing to protect people from the sun, nothing to slowdown the forces of the wind, and nothing to anchor topsoil from eroding in the rain. The conditions at this imaginary planet can become our reality on earth if we do not stop deforestation. There are many negative effects of deforestation. However, for the scopeRead MoreDeforestation Is The Real Consequences Of Deforestation1231 Words   |  5 Pageswhat would Earth look like without these forests? If the rate of deforestation continues to increase then we may have to find out the answer to that question. Deforestation is a recurring global problem which is the act of tearing down a forest to use the land for a different purpose. Today’s society is so steadfast on advancement that they aren t stepping back to look at the solutions to the problem, alternatives, nor the very real consequences of deforestation. Deforestation could be destroyedRead MoreDeforestation : A Global Problem1624 Words   |  7 PagesInto? Deforestation around the world is a big issue and needs to be stopped. Deforestation is clearing the earth’s forest in order to make room for things like buildings roads and other man made structures. I chose to investigate more into the topic of deforestation as there is a constant need for more money and land, as it is destroying and causing huge amounts of damage. Throughout my argument I will be answering questions such as, what is deforestation, what are the pros and cons and what areRead MoreThe Issues Surrounding The Amazon Rainforest1206 Words   |  5 Pages9th largest in the world, just below Argentina (The Denver Academy). The grand size helps us to realize how important this topic is to all of us living on earth. In order to preserve this miracle of nature, the Brazilian government must reduce deforestation of the amazon rainforest by redirecting farmers to lands other than the rainforest, introducing stricter regulations to fight extinction and preserve valuable ecosystems, and reducing corruption in the government in order to reap the environmentalRead MoreBenefits of Globalization Essay1552 Words   |  7 Pages INTRODUCTION Nowadays when people start their own businesses, the majority of them have a common vision which is to see their business’s products or services being purchased all over the world. Some people wear clothes just to look good but others would prefer owning clothes made from imported material, or rather imported clothing product. Most products that we use in South Africa are either written that they were manufactured in another country or made in South Africa from imported materialRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation On The Environment1379 Words   |  6 Pagesyou no choice but to run through the forest. Being separated from family members, all alone in the african desert with no home left. This issue is happening all over the place for many beloved animals yet not much is being done about it at all. Deforestation is a major issue for animals, forests are a huge source of oxygen for the wildlife surrounding them. â€Å"80% of the animals in the world live in or around forestsà ¢â‚¬ (National Geographic, Munita) there has been a huge increase for many species goingRead MoreEssay The Human Impact on Rainforests1203 Words   |  5 Pagesand plants in the world. 4.2% of the world’s animals live in the rainforest. This statistic it self shows how bad it would be to destroy such essential part of the worlds biodiversity. Nevertheless there are still huge advantages of deforestation. But does this mean 2.47 acres of rainforest should be destroyed every single second? This mean every second of the day size of two football field is lost forever. Rainforests are the most productive and most complex ecosystemsRead MoreDeforestation Is An Industry Practice Of Mass Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesEssay Assignment ENGL135 Deforestation is an industry practice of mass clear-cutting of various types of trees. In most cases, this newly cleared land is used for the expansion of globalisation such as factories, shopping malls, apartments, ect. People need to understand the importance of trees throughout all aspects of our lives as well as how they interact with our daily routines, by understanding this, people will be more likely to accept the fact that deforestation is a major problem in allRead MoreDeforestation And Its Effects On The Environment1616 Words   |  7 PagesBackground Webster dictionary defines deforestation as the action or process of clearing of forests. It occurs when humans desire to make use of land covered by forest for other purposes. This clearing of tree is concerning due to the fact that trees are being cut down at a rate much greater then they can grow back. This is called overshot, and can have a devastating impact on the environment. There is an estimated loss of 18 million acres of forest each year. That is roughly equivalent to the sizeRead MoreDeforestation in Illinois: Problems and Description1592 Words   |  7 PagesThe effects of deforestation around my home and throughout my state are becoming more evident every day. When a deer or other wild game loses its home, they move into cities, urban areas, and parks; thus causing issues with the human population. Most people living in Illinois have hit or nearly killed a deer driving on Southern Illinois roadways. This common occurrence could be kept at bay or maybe even avoided if the deer and wild game had more space to reside. There are many points that coincide

Dancing In The Snow Essay Example For Students

Dancing In The Snow Essay Dancing in the snowHave you ever awakened to see the frosty chill of a Denver morning where you can look out of the frosted window and see the fresh blanket of soft snow gleaming in the morning light? Well, I have and it fells like paradise. The skiing is brilliant in the wintertime, the snow is natural and the scenery is a bright white sight. Denver may not have the highest mountains in the world, but they are considered some of the most challenging and popular mountains. My first visit occurred when I was a young fourteen-year-old. One night after my surprise birthday party, my daddy sat down with me in front of the flaming fireplace and casually said, Were going to Denver. I felt an amazing rush go through my body as I jumped for joy and hit my head on the shelf lying above my conformable chair. My head started to bleed, but nobody noticed until blood started rushing down my happy face. Then one cool morning my family packed up and headed to the beloved resort of Keystone. After a four-hour plane trip, which seemed like days, I saw for the first time the unique snowflakes. We arrived in the small, cozy house, which was built with thick reddish-brown brick to keep the hard to get heat inside to keep our bodies warm. Through the front door was the living room, which was filled with pictures of mountain wolfs and three large, white, soft couches centered around a tea table and an already lit crackling fire. The carpets were spotless white and lead to the back door. I walked outside into the back yard and took a deep breath, which was crystallized immediately. I sat down on the frozen curb and listened peacefully to the wind chimes blowing in the distance. The soft untouched snow covered the ground perfectly until suddenly my crazy brother tackled me into the blanket of snow. We started to snowball fight, but I quickly stopped when my brother hit my already frozen ear with a big hard snowball. If you have ever been hit on the ear when its cold, you know that it fells as if you had been plucked a million times non-stop. The sun was drifting away and so were my sleepy eyes. That night I was sleeping in the chili basement, I woke up in the middle of the night with no covers on, and shaking like a scared little boy. The next morning I awoke to a mild snow blizzard, which floated down to cover the icy ground. Everyone was glad to see the blizzard, because the fresher the snow, the better the skiing. We covered ourselves in thick layers of warm ski clothes. As I put on my insulated underwear and wool socks, I thought to myself wow its going to a cold day. My thick, blue ski overalls and bright red sweater went on following the puffy orange jacket. I looked like a fat rainbow man whose was born to ski. The enormous mountains were harmlessly beautiful, like a picture post card, but at the same time dangerously intimidating, like a calculus exam. We finally entered the magical kingdom of Keystone. When I walked into the Keystone resort, I could hear the kids playing in the snow, the huge ski boots crushing the ice and snow, and the ski lifts struggling to pull the tourists up the mountain. Many people of all ages were having a good time with snow ball fights and if I watched real closely sometimes the older tourists would get hit with a snowball in the back of the head. By the time they quickly turned around the young wild snow throwers were gone with the wind. The stores and restaurants surrounding the ski mountains were jammed packed with people trying to get warm and grab a quick bite to eat. After being inside the warm building, I walked outside into the frosty weather and my face tingled as the frosty wind blew against it. .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .postImageUrl , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:hover , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:visited , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:active { border:0!important; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:active , .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud1965195f898a581871999f7e212746f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Child Abuse EssayNaturally, the first thing I did was dance in the snow while I sang Im dreaming of a white Christmas! Then I rolled up a fat hard

Hand Washing Way free essay sample

Research has shown the single most effective practice that prevents the spread of germs in the child-care setting is good hand washing by caregivers and children. †¢ Rubbing hands together under running water is the most important part of washing away infectious germs. Deficiencies in hand washing, including sharing basins of water, have contributed to many outbreaks of diarrhea among children and caregivers in child-care centers. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends these hand washing steps: †¢ Wet your hands with clean running water and apply soap Rub your hands together to make lather and scrub them well; be sure to scrub the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails. †¢ Continue rubbing your hands for at least 20 seconds (tip: hum the â€Å"Happy Birthday† song twice. †¢ Rinse your hands well under running water. †¢ Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry. †¢ Use a paper towel to turn off the faucet. We will write a custom essay sample on Hand Washing Way or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page †¢ The use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers does not substitute for hand washing in the group care setting. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are flammable and toxic if ingested by children. Communicable diseases are spread from person-to-person in four basic ways: 1. Airborne or the respiratory route These germs are spread when infected droplets from the nose, mouth, sinuses, throat, lungs or contaminated tissues or fabric are inhaled when we breathe. Examples of the Airborne Route of infection are: TB, Colds, Chicken pox 2. Direct contact route This type of germ contact occurs by directly touching an infected area or body fluid such as saliva, mucus, eye discharge, pus or spit. Examples of Direct Contact route are: Conjunctivitis, impetigo, lice, poison ivy, chicken pox 3. Fecal-oral route These germs enter the body from hands, food, mouthed toys, toilet, diapers, etc. , that have been unintentionally infected with germs from stool. Examples of Fecal-Oral communicable route are: hand, foot, and mouth disease, Hepatitis A, rotavirus 4. Blood contact route Meaning that an individual must come into contact with the infected blood or infected body fluids or another in order to â€Å"catch† the disease. Examples of Blood Contact route are: HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C Expected Responses: Wearing gloves, washing hands, using bleach or other approved disinfecting solutions, using available resuscitation masks (CPR).

Barack Obama - Sixth Weekly Transition Address free essay sample

Vlsi Implementation of Array Based Fir Filter Folding Essays

Vlsi Implementation of Array Based Fir Filter Folding Essays Vlsi Implementation of Array Based Fir Filter Folding Essay Vlsi Implementation of Array Based Fir Filter Folding Essay We are grateful to our Principal, Prof. K. Venkataramani for his support and direction in the course of the project. We take great pleasure in thanking our Head of the Department, Dr. S. Jayashri who has always been a source of inspiration. Her constant motivation has been a driving force for the successful completion of the project. This project was made possible due to the proficient and prompt guidance given by our Project Guide, Mr. J. Selvakumar. We take this opportunity to express our gratitude for the encouragement he has provided us. We are indebted to him for spending his valuable time with us.We thank our project coordinator, Mrs. M. Susila for conducting periodic reviews and giving us valuable suggestions. We also thank the lab technicians for their help and cooperation. ABSTRACT This project aims to implement finite impulse response (FIR) filter based on multiplier arrays in Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) and intends to show the reduction of the hardware complexity t hat result out of folding techniques. FIR filter being one of the fundamental components of digital signal processing (DSP) has a vital role to play in communication and signal processing.The advantages of FIR filter are stability and easy implementation but these are undermined by its hardware complexity due to large number of filter-taps. Thus, processes such as folding are used to reduce the hardware complexity of FIR filters because they involve repetitive multiplications. This project deals with the implementation of an 8 tap FIR filter in unfolded, folded and two-stage cascaded folded filter. Cascading combines the merits of folded and unfolded schemes. The filters are implemented with four multipliers- Braun array, Ripple carry, carry save and Wallace tree.The performance of the structures with the four multipliers is compared in terms of hardware complexity and combinational path delay. The advantages of VLSI such as low cost, low power, high reliability, small size and high functionality are to be exploited in this project. The hardware descriptive language used is verilog HDL. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO. ABSTRACT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS iv x xi xiii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1. 1 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING 1. 1. 1 Analog and digital signals 1. 1. 2 Signal processing 1. 1. 3 Digital signal processors 1. 1. Applications of DSP 1 1 1 2 2 2. LITERATURE OVERVIEW 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 FILTERS ANALOG FILTERS DIGITAL FILTERS 2. 3. 1 Advantages of digital filter 2. 3. 2 Operation of digital filter 2. 3. 3 FIR and IIR filters 2. 3. 4 FIR filter 2. 3. 4. 1 Terms used in FIR filter 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 7 7 2. 3. 4. 2 Advantages of FIR filter 2. 3. 4. 3 Disadvantages of FIR filter 2. 4 FOLDING 8 9 9 3. ARCHITECTURES OF FIR FILTER 10 3. 1 3. 2 UNFOLDED ARCHITECTURE FOLDED ARCHITECTURE OF K TAP FIR FILTER 10 11 3. 3 CASCADED ARCHITECTURE OF FIR FILTER 13 4. MULTIPLIERS 4. 1 4. 2 BASICS OF DIGITAL MULTIPLICATION ARRAY MULTIPLIER 4. . 1 Braun array multiplier 4. 2. 2 Ripple carry multiplier 4. 2. 3 Carry save multiplier 4. 3 TREE MULTIPLIER 4. 3. 1 Wallace tree multiplier 16 16 16 17 18 19 20 20 5. SOURCE CODE 5. 1 UNFOLDED FILTER 5. 1. 1 Top module 5. 1. 2 16 bit adder 5. 1. 3 17 bit adder 5. 1. 4 18 bit adder 5. 1. 5 D flip flop 5. 1. 6 Multiplier 5. 2 FOLDED FILTER 5. 2. 1 Top module 5. 2. 2 Adder module 5. 2. 3 D-R module 5. 2. 4 D flip flop 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 26 5. 2. 5 Multiplier adder unit 5. 2. 6 Multiplier 5. 2. 7 Multiplexer 5. 2. 8 C-R module 5. 3 CASCADED FIR FILTER 5. 3. 1 Top module 5. 3. Adder module 5. 3. 3 D-R module 5. 3. 4 D flip flop 5. 3. 5 Filter stage 1 26 27 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 30 31 32 33 34 34 35 35 35 36 37 39 40 40 40 5. 3. 6 Filter stage 2 5. 3. 7 Multiplier adder unit 1 5. 3. 8 Multiplier adder unit 2 5. 3. 9 Multiplier 5. 3. 10 Multiplexer 5. 3. 11 C-R module 5. 4 MULTIPLIERS 5. 4. 1 Braun array multiplier 5. 4. 2 Carry save multiplier 5. 4. 3 Ripple carry multi plier 5. 4. 4 Wallace tree multiplier 5. 5 ADDERS 5. 5. 1 Full adder 5. 5. 2 Half adder 6. SIMULATION RESULTS 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 UNFOLDED FOLDED CASCADED 41 41 42 43 7. XILINX SYNTEHSIS AND POWER REPORT: 7. UNFOLDED FIR FILTER 7. 1. 1 Synthesis report 7. 1. 2 Power report 44 44 44 46 7. 2 FOLDED FIR FILTER WITH BRAUN ARRAY MULTIPLIER 7. 2. 1 Synthesis report 7. 2. 2 Power report 47 47 49 7. 3 FOLDED FIR FILTER WITH CARRY SAVE MULTIPLIER 7. 3. 1 Synthesis report 7. 3. 2 Power report 49 49 52 7. 4 FOLDED FIR FILTER WITH RIPPLE CARRY MULTIPLIER 7. 4. 1 Synthesis report 7. 4. 2 Power report 52 52 54 7. 5 FOLDED FIR FILTER WITH WALLACE TREE MULTIPLIER 7. 5. 1 Synthesis report 7. 5. 2 Power report 55 55 57 7. 6 CASCADED FIR FILTER WITH BRAUN ARRAY MULTIPLIER 7. 6. 1 Synthesis report 7. 6. 2 Power report 58 58 60 . 7 CASCADED FIR FILTER WITH CARRY SAVE MULTIPLIER 7. 7. 1 Synthesis report 7. 7. 2 Power report 60 60 63 7. 8 CASCADED FIR FILTER WITH RIPPLE CARRY MULTIPLIER 7. 8. 1 Synthesis repor t 7. 8. 2 Power report 63 63 66 7. 9 FOLDED FIR FILTER WITH WALLACE TREE MULTIPLIER 7. 9. 1 Synthesis report 7. 9. 2 Power report 66 66 68 8. RTL SCHEMATICS 8. 1 8. 2 8. 3 UNFOLDED FIR FILTER FOLDED FIR FILTER CASCADED FIR FILTER 70 70 71 71 9. FPGA EDITOR DIAGRAMS: 9. 1 9. 2 9. 3 UNFOLDED FIR FILTER FOLDED FIR FILTER CASCADED FIR FILTER 72 72 73 74 10. COMPARISON 10. 1 COMPARISON OF MULTIPLIERS 10. 1. 1 Charts 10. COMPARISON OF THE THREE ARCHITECTURES OF FIR FILTER 10. 2. 1 Charts 10. 2. 2 Tables 75 75 75 76 76 77 11. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS 79 APPENDICES A B XILINX SPARTAN II FPGA FAMILY VERILOG 80 80 84 REFERENCES 87 LIST OF TABLES: S. NO TABLE TITLE PAGE NO 1. Table10. 1. Comparison of the gate count of architectures 77 2. Table10. 2. Comparison of the different structures 78 3. Table10. 3. Comparison of the gate count of the structures with different multipliers 78 LIST OF FIGURES: S. NO FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO 1. Fig2. 1. Filtering operation 4 2. Fig2. 2. Signal Proces sing system 5 . Fig2. 3. FIR filter 7 4. Fig3. 1. FIR filter in direct form 10 5. Fig3. 2. Folded architecture of k tap FIR filter 12 6. 7. Fig3. 3. Fig3. 4. Timing diagram 8-tap direct form FIR filter divided into two filter stages 12 13 8. Fig3. 5. Cascaded structure of two folded filter stages 14 9. Fig3. 6. Timing diagram 15 10. Fig4. 1. Multiplier cell 16 11. Fig4. 2. Braun Array Multiplier 17 12. Fig4. 3. Ripple Carry Array multiplier 18 13. Fig4. 5 Carry Save Array Multiplier 19 14. Fig4. 6. Flowchart of a tree multiplier 20 15. Fig4. 7. Transforming a partial product tree into a wallace tree 1 16. Fig4. 8. Wallace tree multiplier 21 17. Fig6. 1. Model Sim Output of unfolded FIR filter 41 18. Fig6. 2. Model Sim Output of folded FIR filter 42 19. Fig6. 3. Model Sim Output of cascaded FIR filter 43 20. 21. Fig 7. 1. Fig8. 1. Project properties RTL schematic of unfolded FIR filter 44 70 22. Fig8. 2. RTL schematic of folded FIR filter 71 23. Fig8. 3. RTL schematic of cascaded FIR filter 71 24. Fig9. 1 Fpga editor diagram of unfolded fir filter 72 25. Fig9. 2 Fpga editor diagram of folded fir filter 73 26. Fig9. 3 Fpga editor diagram of cascaded fir filter 74 27. Fig10. 1Combinational delay of the multipliers 75 28. Fig10. 2 Hardware complexity of the multipliers 75 29. Fig10. 3 Hardware complexity of the three architectures of fir filter 76 30. Fig10. 4 No of clock cycles to obtain output 76 31. Fig10. 5 Combinational delay 77 32. Fig10. 6 No of slices 77 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS: ADC : Analog to Digital Converter ALU : Arithmetic and Logic Unit ASIC : Application Specific Integrated Circuit BAM : Braun Array Multiplier CSM : Carry Save Multiplier DAC : Digital To Analog converter FA FFT FIR : Full Adder : Fast Fourier Transform : Finite Impulse ResponseFPGA : Field Programmable Gate Arrays GCLK : Global Clock HA : Half Adder HDL : Hardware Descriptive Language IEEE : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IIR IOB LSB : Infinite Impulse Response : Input Output Buffer : Least Significant Bit LUT : Look Up Table MAC : Multiply Accumulate MSB : Most Significant Bit RCM : Ripple Carry Multiplier RTL : Register Transfer Level VHDL : VHSIC Hardware Descriptive Language VLSI : Very Large Scale Integration 1. INTRODUCTION: 1. 1 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING: Digital Signal Processing, as the term suggests, is the processing of signals by digital means.A signal in this context can mean a number of different things. Historically the origins of signal processing are in electrical engineering, and a signal here means an electrical signal carried by a wire or telephone line, or perhaps by a radio wave. More generally, however, a signal is a stream of information representing anything from stock prices to data from a remote-sensing satellite. The term digital comes from digit, meaning a number (you count with your fingers your digits), so digital literally means numerical; the French word for digital is ‘numerique’.A d igital signal consists of a stream of numbers, usually (but not necessarily) in binary form. The processing of a digital signal is done by performing numerical calculations. 1. 1. 1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS: In many cases, the signal of interest is initially in the form of an analog electrical voltage or current, produced for example by a microphone or some other type of transducer. In some situations, such as the output from the readout system of a CD (compact disc) player, the data is already in digital form.An analog signal must be converted into digital form before DSP techniques can be applied. An analog electrical voltage signal, for example, can be digitized using an electronic circuit called an analog-to-digital converter or ADC. This generates a digital output as a stream of binary numbers whose values represent the electrical voltage input to the device at each sampling instant. 1. 1. 2 SIGNAL PROCESSING: Signals commonly need to be processed in a variety of ways. For ex ample, the output signal from a transducer may well be contaminated with unwanted electrical noise.The electrodes attached to a patients chest when an ECG is taken measure tiny electrical voltage changes due to the activity of the heart and other muscles. The signal is often strongly affected by mains pickup due to electrical interference from the mains supply. Processing the signal using a filter circuit can remove or at least reduce the unwanted part of the signal. Increasingly nowadays, the filtering of signals to improve signal quality or to extract important information is done by DSP techniques rather than by analog electronics.The development of digital signal processing dates from the 1960s with the use of mainframe digital computers for number-crunching applications such as the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which allows the frequency spectrum of a signal to be computed rapidly. These techniques were not widely used at that time, because suitable computing equipment was gene rally available only in universities and other scientific research institutions. 1. 1. 3 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS: The introduction of the microprocessor in the late 1970s and early 1980s made it possible for DSP techniques to be used in a much wider range of applications.However, general-purpose microprocessors such as the Intel x86 family are not ideally suited to the numerically-intensive requirements of DSP, and during the 1980s the increasing importance of DSP led several major electronics manufacturers (such as Texas Instruments, Analog Devices and Motorola) to develop Digital Signal Processor chips specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a Digital Signal Processor is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code.DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like their better-known g eneral-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex system-on-chip devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry. 1. 1. 4 APPLICATIONS OF DSP: DSP technology is nowadays commonplace in such devices as mobile phones, multimedia computers, video recorders, CD players, hard disc drive controllers and modems, and will soon replace analog circuitry in TV sets and telephones.An important application of DSP is in signal compression and decompression. Signal compression is used in digital cellular phones to allow a greater number of calls to be handled simultaneously within each local cell. DSP signal compression technology allows people not only to talk to one another but also to see one another on their computer screens, using small video cameras mounted on the computer monitors, with only a conventional telephone line linking them together. In audio CD systems, DSP technology is used to perform complex error detection and correction on the raw data as it is read from the CD.Although some of the mathematical theory underlying DSP techniques, such as Fourier and Hilbert Transforms, digital filter design and signal compression, can be fairly complex, the numerical operations required actually to implement these techniques are very simple, consisting mainly of operations that could be done on a cheap four-function calculator. The architecture of a DSP chip is designed to carry out such operations incredibly fast, processing hundreds of millions of samples very second, to provide real-time performance: that is, the ability to process a signal live as it is sampled and then output the processed signal, for example to a loudspeaker or video display. All of the practical examples of DSP applications mentioned earlier, such as hard disc drives and mobile phones, demand real-time operation. The major electronics manufacturers have invested heavily in DSP technology. Because they no w find application in mass-market products, DSP chips account for a substantial proportion of the world market for electronic devices.Sales amount to billions of dollars annually, and seem likely to continue to increase rapidly. 2. LITERATURE OVERVIEW: 2. 1 FILTERS: In signal processing, the function of a filter is to remove unwanted parts of the signal, such as random noise, or to extract useful parts of the signal, such as the components lying within a certain frequency range. The following block diagram illustrates the basic idea. Fig2. 1. Filtering operation There are two main kinds of filter, analog and digital. They are quite different in their physical makeup and in how they work. 2. ANALOG FILTERS: An analog filter uses analog electronic circuits made up from components such as resistors, capacitors and op amps to produce the required filtering effect. Such filter circuits are widely used in such applications as noise reduction, video signal enhancement, graphic equalizers i n hi-fi systems, and many other areas. There are well-established standard techniques for designing an analog filter circuit for a given requirement. At all stages, the signal being filtered is an electrical voltage or current, which is the direct analogue of the physical quantity (e. . a sound or video signal or transducer output) involved. 2. 3 DIGITAL FILTER: A digital filter is any electronic filter that works by performing digital math operations on an intermediate form of a signal. This is in contrast with older analog filters which work entirely in the analog realm and must rely on physical networks of electronic components (such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, etc. ) to achieve a desired filtering effect. Digital filters can achieve virtually any filtering effect that can be expressed as a mathematical algorithm. The two primary limitations of igital filters are their speed (the filter cant operate any faster than the computer at the heart of the filter), and their co st. However as the cost of integrated circuits have continued to drop over time, digital filters have become increasingly commonplace and are now an essential element of many everyday objects such as radios, cellphones, and stereo receivers. The analog input signal must first be sampled and digitized using an ADC (analog to digital converter). The resulting binary numbers, representing successive sampled values of the input signal, are transferred to the processor, which carries out numerical calculations on them.These calculations typically involve multiplying the input values by constants and adding the products together. If necessary, the results of these calculations, which now represent sampled values of the filtered signal, are output through a DAC (digital to analog converter) to convert the signal back to analog form. Note that in a digital filter, the signal is represented by a sequence of numbers, rather than a voltage or current. Fig2. 2 Signal processing system 2. 3. 1 A DVANTAGES OF DIGITAL FILTERS: The following list gives some of the main advantages of digital over analog filters. A digital filter is programmable, i. . its operation is determined by a program stored in the processors memory. This means the digital filter can easily be changed without affecting the circuitry (hardware). Redesigning the filter circuit can only change an analog filter. Digital filters are easily designed, tested and implemented on a general-purpose computer or workstation. The characteristics of analog filter circuits (particularly those containing active components) are subject to drift and are dependent on temperature. Digital filters do not suffer from these problems, and so are extremely stable with respect both to time and temperature.Unlike their analog counterparts, digital filters can handle low frequency signals accurately. As the speed of DSP technology continues to increase, digital filters are being applied to high frequency signals in the RF (radio freq uency) domain, which in the past was the exclusive preserve of analog technology. Digital filters are very much more versatile in their ability to process signals in a variety of ways; this includes the ability of some types of digital filter to adapt to changes in the characteristics of the signal. 2. 3. OPERATION OF DIGITAL FILTERS: Suppose the raw signal, which is to be digitally filtered, is in the form of a voltage waveform described by the function V = x (t) where t is time. This signal is sampled at time intervals h (the sampling interval). The sampled value at time t = ih is xi = x (ih) Thus the digital values transferred from the ADC to the processor can be represented by the sequence x0, x1, x2, x3, Corresponding to the values of the signal waveform at times t = 0, h, 2h, 3h, (where t = 0 is the instant at which sampling begins).At time t = nh (where n is some positive integer), the values available to the processor, stored in memory, are x0, x1, x2, x3, , xn Note that the sampled values xn+1, xn+2 etc. are not available, as they havent happened yet! The digital output from the processor to the DAC consists of the sequence of values y0, y1, y2, y3, , yn In general, the value of yn is calculated from the values x0, x1, x2, x3, , xn. The way in which the ys are calculated from the xs determines the filtering action of the digital filter. 2. 3. FIR AND IIR FILTERS: The impulse response of a digital filter is the output sequence from the filter when a unit impulse is applied at its input. (A unit impulse is a very simple input sequence consisting of a single value of 1 at time t = 0, followed by zeros at all subsequent sampling instants). An FIR filter is one whose impulse response is of finite duration. An IIR filter is one whose impulse response (theoretically) continues forever, because the recursive (previous output) terms feed back energy into the filter input and keep it going.Impulse Response The impulse response of a FIR filter is actually just the set of FIR coefficients. (If you put an impulse into a FIR filter which consists of a 1 sample followed by many 0 samples, the output of the filter will be the set of coefficients, as the 1 sample moves past each coefficient in turn to form the output. ) The term IIR is not very accurate, because the actual impulse responses of nearly all IIR filters reduce virtually to zero in a finite time. 2. 3. 4 FIRFILTER: Fig2. 3. FIR filter 2. 3. 4. 1 TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING FIR FILTERS: Tap A FIR tap is simply a coefficient/delay pair.The number of FIR taps, (often designated as N) is an indication of 1) the amount of memory required to implement the filter, 2) the number of calculations required, and 3) the amount of filtering the filter can do; in effect, more taps means more stop band attenuation, less ripple, narrower filters, etc. ) Multiply-Accumulate (MAC) In a FIR context, a MAC is the operation of multiplying a coefficient by the corresponding delayed data sample and acc umulating the result. FIRs usually require one MAC per tap. Most DSP microprocessors implement the MAC operation in a single instruction cycle.Transition Band The band of frequencies between pass band and stop band edges. The narrower the transition band, the more taps are required to implement the filter. (A small transition band results in a sharp filter. ) Delay Line The set of memory elements that implement the Z^-1 delay elements of the FIR calculation. Circular Buffer A special buffer which is circular because incrementing at the end causes it to wrap around to the beginning, or because decrementing from the beginning causes it to wrap around to the end.Circular buffers are often provided by DSP microprocessors to implement the movement of the samples through the FIR delay-line without having to literally move the data in memory. When a new sample is added to the buffer, it automatically replaces the oldest one. 2. 3. 4. 2 ADVANTAGES OF FIR FILTERS: Compared to IIR filters, FIR filters offer the following advantages: They can easily be designed to be linear phase (and usually are). Put simply, linear-phase filters delay the input signal, but don’t distort its phase. They are simple to implement.On most DSP microprocessors, the FIR calculation can be done by looping a single instruction. They are suited to multi-rate applications. By multi-rate, we mean decimation (reducing the sampling rate), interpolation (increasing the sampling rate), or both. Whether decimating or interpolating, the use of FIR filters allows some of the calculations to be omitted, thus providing an important computational efficiency. In contrast, if IIR filters are used, each output must be individually calculated, even if it that output will be discarded (so the feedback will be incorporated into the filter).They have desirable numeric properties. In practice, all DSP filters must be implemented using finite-precision arithmetic, that is, a limited number of bits. The use of finiteprecision arithmetic in IIR filters can cause significant problems due to the use of feedback, but FIR filters have no feedback, so they can usually be implemented using fewer bits, and the designer has fewer practical problems to solve related to non-ideal arithmetic. They can be implemented using fractional arithmetic. Unlike IIR filters, it is always possible to implement a FIR filter using coefficients with magnitude of less than 1. . (The overall gain of the FIR filter can be adjusted at its output, if desired. ) This is an important consideration when using fixed-point DSPs, because it makes the implementation much simpler. FIR filters inherently stable. Since hey have no feedback elements, any bounded input results in a bounded output. 2. 3. 4. 3 DISADVANTAGES OF FIR FILTERS: Compared to IIR filters, FIR filters sometimes have the disadvantage that they require more memory and/or calculation to achieve a given filter response characteristic. Also, certain responses a re not practical to implement with FIR filters 2. FOLDING: Folding transformation is used to systematically determine the control circuits in DSP architectures where multiple algorithm operations such as addition operations are time-multiplexed to a single functional unit. Thus the number of functional units in the implementation is reduced resulting in an IC with low silicon area. This is an important aspect in synthesizing DSP architectures. In general, folding can be used to reduce the number of hardware functional units by a factor of N at the expense of increasing the computational time by a factor of N (number of algorithm operations executed on a single functional unit in hardware).Folding transformation may also lead to an architecture that uses a large number of registers. To overcome this drawback, techniques can be used to compute the minimum number of registers required to implement a folded DSP architecture and to allocate data to these registers. Using register minimiz ation techniques along with the folding transformation not only reduces the number of functional units but also keeps the area consumed by memory in the folded architecture to a minimum. 3. ARCHITECTURES OF FIR FILTER: The direct form structure consists of a large number of filter taps that lead to excessive hardware complexity.Folding techniques have been proposed as a means of reducing the hardware complexity when the processing throughput required by the application is less than the throughput at which the circuit can operate. FIR filters are ideal candidates for folding since they are essentially a repetition of multiplications. The main drawback of folded FIR filter scheme is that while they achieve significant hardware reduction, they also reduce the sample rate. A way to combine the merits of folded and unfolded filters is to cascade a number of folded FIR filter units.The partially folded filter is an intermediate form between the folded and unfolded form of a filter, featur ing higher throughput than the folded and requiring less hardware than the unfolded. Partially folded filter consists of a number of modules, each of them being a fully folded filter. Cascading p such modules increases the sample rate by p. 3. 1 DIRECT FORM ARCHITECTURE: The unfolded architecture consists of delays, multipliers and adders. The output is obtained every clock cycle. A k-tap filter consists of k multipliers, k-1 adders and k-1 delays.The input sample x is delayed and multiplied with filter coefficients and accumulated to get the output. Fig4. shows a k-tap direct FIR filter. Fig3. 1. FIR filter in direct form 3. 2 FOLDED ARCHITECTURE OF K-TAP FIR FILTER: The folded architecture consists of a multiplier and adder unit, which performs one multiplication, addition operation every clock cycle. So it requires k-clock cycles to perform k such operations in production of single output of a k-tap filter. The cyclic shift registers C-R store the filter coefficients in the desce nding order and k-1 input samples are stored in the D-R cyclic shift registers in the descending order.These shift registers account for the delay elements present in the direct form of the unfolded architecture of an FIR filter. The C-R registers correspond to the data latches where the filter coefficients are stored when the filter is programmed. Fig5. shows the architecture of the folded FIR filter. The convolution output is produced in k-clock cycles. The term x (n-k-1) hk-1 is computed first and the term x(n)h0 is computed last. The multiplexer set; mux1 is used to input the filter coefficients to the multiplier-add unit (mac).The select signal ‘sel’ is used to select between the two inputs, one being the external input ‘hc’ and the other is the data out of the shift register C-R. During the first k clock cycles hc is selected and for the remaining computations output from C-R is selected. Multiplexer set, mux2 is used to obtain a new input every kth c lock cycle which then gets stored in the D-R shift register. The third multiplexer set, mux3 is used to obtain the sum of products through accumulation in the mac unit and to clear the accumulator every kth clock cycle. The select signal for the second and the third multiplexer sets is ‘s’.The signal ‘s’ is made high every kth clock cycle. Tristate buffers, which are enabled by signal ‘s’, are used to obtain the final output. The circuit operates at clock frequency ‘fc’. An input sample is processed every k clock cycles and therefore the filter operation frequency is fs=fc/k. The frequency of the control signal ‘s’ is ‘fs’. Fig6. shows the timing diagram of the operation. Fig3. 2. Folded architecture of k-tap FIR filter Fig3. 3. Timing diagram 3. 3 CASCADED ARCHITECTURE OF FIR FILTER: A cascaded structure is obtained by dividing the k-tap filter into many stages. Fig7. hows a twostage structure obtained by dividing an 8-tap FIR filter and introducing a delay between the two stages. Each stage is partially folded and cascaded. Fig8. shows the cascaded architecture using two folded FIR filters in direct form. The first four filter coefficients are stored in the C-R register of stage 1 and the next four coefficients are stored in the C-R register of stage 2. The input sample to the second stage comes from the delay register D-R. The output of the second stage ‘yp’ is used to initialize the accumulator of the first stage. The final output ‘y’ is obtained from the first stage.A delay exists in the sum line from the output of stage 2 to the input of the adder of stage 1 in the Fig. 3. This corresponds to the delay in the input of adder of stage 1 in Fig4. The operation of each stage is similar to that of a normal folded FIR filter. The select signal ‘s’ of both the stages are synchronized. The select signal ‘sel’ to the multiplexer set, m ux1 is used to select the output of the C-R register after four clock cycles as only four coefficients are used by each stage. The second stage produces a partial output ‘yp’ in one sample cycle, which is used by the first stage in the next sample cycle.Fig3. 4. 8-tap direct form FIR filter divided into two filter stages Fig8. Cascaded structure of two folded filter stages The timing diagram, shown in Fig9. clarifies the operation of the circuit. In this diagram y(n), yp(n) and the filter terms accumulated after every clock cycle by both stages is shown. The Computation of the result y(n) lasts to x(n) sample cycles. During the first cycle, stage 2 computes yp(n). This is available in the last clock cycle and is used as an initial value for the accumulation performed by stage 1 in the second sample cycle.During this cycle stage 1 computes y(n) and stage2 computes yp(n+1) of the next result. Thus the computations of two results y(n) and yp(n+1) are overlapped and we obta in a result every four clock cycles. The select signal ‘s’ is made high every fourth clock cycle to get the output. Fig3. 5. Timing diagram 4. MULTIPLIERS: The most critical function carried out by ALU is multiplication Digital multiplication is not the most fundamentally complex operation, but is the most extensively used operation (especially in signal processing) Innumerable schemes have been proposed for realization of the operation 4. BASICS OF DIGITAL MULTIPLICATION: Digital multiplication entails a sequence of additions carried out on partial products The method by which this partial product array is summed to give the final product is the key distinguishing factor amongst the numerous multiplication schemes A 4. 2 ARRAY MULTIPLIER: Partial products are independently computed in parallel Consider two binary numbers A and B, of m and n bits, respectively: Pk is known as the partial product term, also called the summand. Fig4. 1. Multiplier cell 4. 2. 1 BRAUN ARRAY MULTIPLIER: Simplest parallel multiplier. Suited only for positive operands.The partial products are computed in parallel and then collected through a series of carry save adders. The completion time is limited by the depth of the carry save and by the carry propagation in the adder. Fig4. 2. Braun array multiplier 4. 2. 2 RIPPLE CARRY ARRAY MULTIPLIERS: Row ripple form Unrolled shift-add algorithm Delay is proportional to N A ripple carry array multiplier (also called row ripple form) is an unrolled embodiment of the classic shift-add multiplication algorithm. The illustration shows the adder structure used to combine all the bit products in a 44 multiplier.The bit products are the logical and of the bits from each input. They are shown in the form x, y in the drawing. The maximum delay is the path from either LSB input to the MSB of the product, and is the same (ignoring routing delays) regardless of the path taken. The delay is approximately 2*n. Fig4. 3. Ripple carry array mult iplier 4. 2. 3 CARRY SAVE ARRAY MULTIPLIERS: Column ripple form Fundamentally same delay and gate count as row ripple form Gate level speed ups available for ASICs Ripple adder can be replaced with faster carry tree adder Regular routing patternFig4. 5. Carry save array multiplier 4. 3 TREE MULTIPLIER: Offers potential for multiplication in time O (logn) Once partial product array is formed, bits are passed to reduction network Here column-wise compression of the bits takes place, yielding two final partial products Final product is obtained by addition of these two partial products Considered to be irregular in form and does not permit efficient VLSI realization Fig4. 6. Flowchart of a tree multiplier 4. 3. 1 WALLACE TREE MULTIPLIER: Partial Sum adders can be re-arranged in a ree-like fashion, reducing the critical path and the number of cells needed. Fig. (a) Only column 3 has to add 4 bits. All others are less complex Fig. (b) Half Adders (HA) in column 3 ; 4. Fig. (c) Full Adder s (FA) in column 3, 4, and 5; HA in column 2. Fig. (d) Finally, HA from column 1 to 6. Fig4. 7. Transforming a partial product tree into a wallace tree Wallace Tree multiplier implementation. Substantial saving on larger multiplier. Fig4. 8. Wallace tree multiplier 5. SOURCE CODE: 5. 1 UNFOLDED FIR FILTER: 5. 1. TOP MODULE: module FIR_filter(x,h0,h1,h2,h3, h4,h5,h6,h7,clk,y); input[7:0]x,h0,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,h7; input clk; output[18:0]y; wire[7:0]x0,x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7; wire[7:0]x0_bar,x1_bar,x2_bar,x3_bar,x4_bar,x5_bar,x6_bar,x7_bar; wire [15:0]p0,p1,p2,p3,p4,p5,p6,p7; wire[16:0]s0,s1,s2,s3; wire[17:0]s4,s5; delay d0(x,clk,reset,x0,x0_bar); delay d1(x0,clk,reset,x1,x1_bar); delay d2(x1,clk,reset,x2,x2_bar); delay d3(x2,clk,reset,x3,x3_bar); delay d4(x3,clk,reset,x4,x4_bar); delay d5(x4,clk,reset,x5,x5_bar); delay d6(x5,clk,reset,x6,x6_bar); delay d7(x6,clk,reset,x7,x7_bar); mul_8x8 m0(x0,h0,p0); mul_8x8 m1(x1,h1,p1); mul_8x8 m2(x2,h2,p2); mul_8x8 m3(x3,h3,p3); mul_8x8 m4(x4,h4,p4) ; mul_8x8 m5(x5,h5,p5); mul_8x8 m6(x6,h6,p6); mul_8x8 m7(x7,h7,p7); adder_16bit a0(p0,p1,s0), a1(p2,p3,s1), a2(p4,p5,s2), a3(p6,p7,s3); adder_17bit a4(s0,s1,s4), a5(s2,s3,s5); adder_18bit a6(s4,s5,y); endmodule 5. 1. 2 16-BIT ADDER: module adder_16bit(A,B,sum); input [15:0] A,B; output [16:0]sum; assign sum=A+B; endmodule 5. 1. 3 17-BIT ADDER: module adder_17bit(A,B,sum); input[16:0]A,B; input[17:0]sum; assign sum=A+B; endmodule 5. 1. 4 18-BIT ADDER: module adder_18bit(A,B,sum); input[17:0]A,B; output[18:0]sum; assign sum=A+B; endmodule 5. 1. 5 D FLIPFLOP: module delay(D,CLK,reset,Q,Q_bar); input [7:0] D; input CLK,reset; output[7:0] Q; output[7:0]Q_bar; reg [7:0] Q; assign Q_bar=~Q; always @(posedge CLK or negedge reset) if(reset==0)Q

Critical and strategic understanding of Information Technology in UK's Essay

Critical and strategic understanding of Information Technology in UK's universities and improvement to this given service - Essay Example All these in turn results competitive services offered by the business or organization in comparison to the competitor (Gronroos, 2000). Effective service design requires developing the critical and strategic level understanding of the services required by the customers of the organization (Hollins & Hollins, 1991). Therefore, the aim of this report is to develop the comprehensive understanding of the service requirement of the customers of the universities of UK from its information technology based attendance monitoring system. The paper in specific reference to the literature review in the context of the service design will determine the service requirement from IT based student attendance monitoring system in the universities of UK. The paper has found that service design appears to have significant involvement in the universities’ attendance systems. It is despite fact that service organizations are less involved in integrating service design. Finally, the improvement rec ommendations are made for the university attendance system. LITERATURE REVIEW AND RELEVANCE TO THE IT IN UK UNIVERSITIES The service design, simply stating, is aimed at transforming the service that is provided to the customer more useful. The services that are delivered to the customer result in more effective, efficient, usable as well as desirable by the customer once are provided in accordance to the critically developed design (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry, 1988). Hence, the process and system that uses the strategic level considerations in devising the path through which the product or service are provided to the customer result in winning customer preference (Moritz, 2005). This win-win situation distinguishes the company’s product among large number of homogeneous products and services (DC, 2013). Herrmann, Huber, & Braunstein, (2000) have defined that service design is the domain that enable the organization to explore the potential strategic possibilities within their business model. Service designing uniquely offers the organization to present the new services by redesigning the pattern of the old service (Goldstein et al., 2002). Moritz (2005) and Salter and Tether (2006) state that as the difference between the product and service is quite evident; therefore, the system of designing and implementing service also requires considering different aspects. These features include considering the uniqueness of the customer requirement, expertise from all related and involved field and most important aspect that needs consideration is the on-going and constantly changing nature of services. Therefore, difference service design categories are determined by Moritz (2005) as depicted as follows: (Kytola and Pakkila, 2012) It is important to understand that companies are able to achieve the distinction only on the basis of the good service design. Therefore, good service design shall ensure that process is successful in deliberately designing the e xperience that customer of the company perceives more valuable. Also the factor that distinguishes a good service design from others is the similar level of valuable experience generated for the service